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It Is A Quite Remarkable Fact That The Great Religions Of The Most Civilized Peoples Are More Deeply Fraught With Sadness Than The Simpler Beliefs Of Earlier Societies. This Certainly Does Not Mean That The Current Of Pessimism Is Eventually To Submerge The Other, But It Proves That It Does Not Lose Ground And That It Does Not Seem Destined To Disappear.

-Emile Durkheim

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It Is A Quite

Emile Durkheim

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It Is A Quite Remarkable Fact That The Great Religions Of The Most Civilized Peoples Are More Deeply Fraught With Sadness Than The Simpler Beliefs Of Earlier Societies. This Certainly Does Not Mean That The Current Of Pessimism Is Eventually To Submerge The Other, But It Proves That It Does Not Lose Ground And That It Does Not Seem Destined To Disappear.

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The Wise Man, Knowing How To Enjoy Achieved Results Without Having Constantly To Replace Them With Others, Finds In Them An Attachment To Life In The Hour Of Difficulty.

Sadness Does Not Inhere In Things; It Does Not Reach Us From The World And Through Mere Contemplation Of The World. It Is A Product Of Our Own Thought. We Create It Out Of Whole Cloth.

Each New Generation Is Reared By Its Predecessor; The Latter Must Therefore Improve In Order To Improve Its Successor. The Movement Is Circular.

It Is Science, And Not Religion, Which Has Taught Men That Things Are Complex And Difficult To Understand.

Man's Characteristic Privilege Is That The Bond He Accepts Is Not Physical But Moral; That Is, Social. He Is Governed Not By A Material Environment Brutally Imposed On Him, But By A Conscience Superior To His Own, The Superiority Of Which He Feels. Because The Greater, Better Part Of His Existence Transcends The Body, He Escapes The Body's Yoke, But Is Subject To That Of Society.

I Can Be Free Only To The Extent That Others Are Forbidden To Profit From Their Physical, Economic, Or Other Superiority To The Detriment Of My Liberty.

The Man Whose Whole Activity Is Diverted To Inner Meditation Becomes Insensible To All His Surroundings.

There Is No Society Known Where A More Or Less Developed Criminality Is Not Found Under Different Forms. No People Exists Whose Morality Is Not Daily Infringed Upon. We Must Therefore Call Crime Necessary And Declare That It Cannot Be Non-existent, That The Fundamental Conditions Of Social Organization, As They Are Understood, Logically Imply It.

Man Cannot Become Attached To Higher Aims And Submit To A Rule If He Sees Nothing Above Him To Which He Belongs. To Free Him From All Social Pressure Is To Abandon Him To Himself And Demoralize Him.

Social Pressure

It Is A Quite Remarkable Fact That The Great Religions Of The Most Civilized Peoples Are More Deeply Fraught With Sadness Than The Simpler Beliefs Of Earlier Societies. This Certainly Does Not Mean That The Current Of Pessimism Is Eventually To Submerge The Other, But It Proves That It Does Not Lose Ground And That It Does Not Seem Destined To Disappear.

We Do Not Condemn It Because It Is A Crime, But It Is A Crime Because We Condemn It.

From Top To Bottom Of The Ladder, Greed Is Aroused Without Knowing Where To Find Ultimate Foothold. Nothing Can Calm It, Since Its Goal Is Far Beyond All It Can Attain. Reality Seems Valueless By Comparison With The Dreams Of Fevered Imaginations; Reality Is Therefore Abandoned.

Sociological Method As We Practice It Rests Wholly On The Basic Principle That Social Facts Must Be Studied As Things, That Is, As Realities External To The Individual. There Is No Principle For Which We Have Received More Criticism; But None Is More Fundamental. Indubitably For Sociology To Be Possible, It Must Above All Have An Object All Its Own. It Must Take Cognizance Of A Reality Which Is Not In The Domain Of Other Sciences... There Can Be No Sociology Unless Societies Exist, And That Societies Cannot Exist If There Are Only Individuals.

The Man Whose Whole Activity Is Diverted To Inner Meditation Becomes Insensible To All His Surroundings. His Passions Are Mere Appearances, Being Sterile. They Are Dissipated In Futile Imaginings, Producing Nothing External To Themselves.

An Act Cannot Be Defined By The End Sought By The Actor, For An Identical System Of Behaviour May Be Adjustable To Too Many Different Ends Without Altering Its Nature.

By Definition, Sacred Beings Are Separated Beings. That Which Characterizes Them Is That There Is A Break Of Continuity Between Them And The Profane Beings.

Man Seeks To Learn, And Man Kills Himself Because Of The Loss Of Cohesion In His Religious Society; He Does Not Kill Himself Because Of His Learning. It Is Certainly Not The Learning He Acquires That Disorganizes Religion; But The Desire For Knowledge Wakens Because Religion Becomes Disorganized.

Irrespective Of Any External, Regulatory Force, Our Capacity For Feeling Is In Itself An Insatiable And Bottomless Abyss.

Faith Is Not Uprooted By Dialectic Proof; It Must Already Be Deeply Shaken By Other Causes To Be Unable To Withstand The Shock Of Argument.

It Is Too Great Comfort Which Turns A Man Against Himself. Life Is Most Readily Renounced At The Time And Among The Classes Where It Is Least Harsh.

One Cannot Long Remain So Absorbed In Contemplation Of Emptiness Without Being Increasingly Attracted To It. In Vain One Bestows On It The Name Of Infinity; This Does Not Change Its Nature. When One Feels Such Pleasure In Non-existence, One's Inclination Can Be Completely Satisfied Only By Completely Ceasing To Exist.

It Is Only By Historical Analysis That We Can Discover What Makes Up Man, Since It Is Only In The Course Of History That He Is Formed.

Society Is Not A Mere Sum Of Individuals. Rather, The System Formed By Their Association Represents A Specific Reality Which Has Its Own Characteristics... The Group Thinks, Feels, And Acts Quite Differently From The Way In Which Its Members Would Were They Isolated. If, Then, We Begin With The Individual, We Shall Be Able To Understand Nothing Of What Takes Place In The Group.

The Roles Of Art, Morality, Religion, Political Faith, Science Itself Are Not To Repair Organic Exhaustion Nor To Provide Sound Functioning Of The Organs. All This Supraphysical Life Is Built And Expanded Not Because Of The Demands Of The Cosmic Environment But Because Of The Demands Of The Social Environment.

One Does Not Advance When One Walks Toward No Goal, Or - Which Is The Same Thing - When His Goal Is Infinity.

Reality Seems Valueless By Comparison With The Dreams Of Fevered Imaginations; Reality Is Therefore Abandoned.

Science Cannot Describe Individuals, But Only Types. If Human Societies Cannot Be Classified, They Must Remain Inaccessible To Scientific Description.

It Is Not Human Nature Which Can Assign The Variable Limits Necessary To Our Needs. They Are Thus Unlimited So Far As They Depend On The Individual Alone. Irrespective Of Any External Regulatory Force, Our Capacity For Feeling Is In Itself An Insatiable And Bottomless Abyss.

Our Excessive Tolerance With Regard To Suicide Is Due To The Fact That, Since The State Of Mind From Which It Springs Is A General One, We Cannot Condemn It Without Condemning Ourselves; We Are Too Saturated With It Not Partly To Excuse It.

If One Class Of Society Is Obliged, In Order To Live, To Take Any Price For Its Services, While Another Can Abstain From Such Action Thanks To Resources At Its Disposal Which, However, Are Not Necessarily Due To Any Social Superiority, The Second Has An Unjust Advantage Over The First At Law. In Other Words, There Cannot Be Rich And Poor A Birth Without There Being Unjust Contracts.

A Social Fact Is Every Way Of Acting, Fixed Or Not, Capable Of Exercising On The Individual An External Constraint; Or Again, Every Way Of Acting Which Is General Throughout A Given Society, While At The Same Time Existing In Its Own Right Independent Of Its Individual Manifestations.

To Pursue A Goal Which Is By Definition Unattainable Is To Condemn Oneself To A State Of Perpetual Unhappiness.

Our Whole Social Environment Seems To Us To Be Filled With Forces Which Really Exist Only In Our Own Minds.

For A Long Time It Has Been Known That The First Systems Of Representations With Which Men Have Pictured To Themselves The World And Themselves Were Of Religious Origin. There Is No Religion That Is Not A Cosmology At The Same Time That It Is A Speculation Upon Divine Things. If Philosophy And The Sciences Were Born Of Religion, It Is Because Religion Began By Taking The Place Of The Sciences And Philosophy.

Man Is A Moral Being, Only Because He Lives In Society. Let All Social Life Disappear And Morality Will Disappear With It.

The First And Most Basic Rule Is To Consider Social Facts As Things.

While The State Becomes Inflated And Hypertrophied In Order To Obtain A Firm Enough Grip Upon Individuals, But Without Succeeding, The Latter, Without Mutual Relationships, Tumble Over One Another Like So Many Liquid Molecules, Encountering No Central Energy To Retain, Fix And Organize Them.

A Monomaniac Is A Sick Person Whose Mentality Is Perfectly Healthy In All Respects But One; He Has A Single Flaw, Clearly Localized. At Times, For Example, He Has An Unreasonable And Absurd Desire To Drink Or Steal Or Use Abusive Language; But All His Other Acts And All His Other Thoughts Are Strictly Correct.

When Man Discovered The Mirror, He Began To Lose His Soul.

A Religion Is A Unified System Of Beliefs And Practices Relative To Sacred Things, That Is To Say, Things Set Apart And Forbidden-beliefs And Practices Which Unite Into One Single Moral Community Called A Church, All Those Who Adhere To Them.

There Is A Collective As Well As An Individual Humor Inclining Peoples To Sadness Or Cheerfulness, Making Them See Things In Bright Or Somber Lights. In Fact, Only Society Can Pass A Collective Opinion On The Value Of Human Life; For This The Individual Is Incompetent.

The Christian Conceives Of His Abode On Earth In No More Delightful Colors Than The Jainist Sectarian. He Sees In It Only A Time Of Sad Trial; He Also Thinks That His True Country Is Not Of This World.

Religious Phenomena Are Naturally Arranged In Two Fundamental Categories: Beliefs And Rites. The First Are States Of Opinion, And Consist In Representations; The Second Are Determined Modes Of Action.

Melancholy Suicide. - This Is Connected With A General State Of Extreme Depression And Exaggerated Sadness, Causing The Patient No Longer To Realize Sanely The Bonds Which Connect Him With People And Things About Him. Pleasures No Longer Attract.

Man Could Not Live If He Were Entirely Impervious To Sadness. Many Sorrows Can Be Endured Only By Being Embraced, And The Pleasure Taken In Them Naturally Has A Somewhat Melancholy Character.

Even One Well-made Observation Will Be Enough In Many Cases, Just As One Well-constructed Experiment Often Suffices For The Establishment Of A Law.

Maniacal Suicide. —this Is Due To Hallucinations Or Delirious Conceptions. The Patient Kills Himself To Escape From An Imaginary Danger Or Disgrace, Or To Obey A Mysterious Order From On High, Etc.

Socialism Is Not A Science, A Sociology In Miniature: It Is A Cry Of Pain.

This Solidarity Can Grow Only In Inverse Ratio To Personality... Solidarity Which Comes From Likenesses Is At Its Maximum When The Collective Conscience Completely Envelops Our Whole Conscience And Coincides In All Points With It... When This Solidarity Exercises Its Force, Our Personality Vanishes, As Our Definition Permits Us To Say, For We Are No Longer Ourselves, But The Collective Life.

The Term Suicide Is Applied To All Cases Of Death Resulting Directly Or Indirectly From A Positive Or Negative Act Of The Victim Himself, Which He Knows Will Produce This Result

Social Life Comes From A Double Source, The Likeness Of Consciences And The Division Of Social Labour.

A Person Is Not Merely A Single Subject Distinguished From All The Others. It Is Especially A Being To Which Is Attributed A Relative Autonomy In Relation To The Environment With Which It Is Most Immediately In Contact.

A Mind That Questions Everything, Unless Strong Enough To Bear The Weight Of Its Ignorance, Risks Questioning Itself And Being Engulfed In Doubt.

If Religion Has Given Birth To All That Is Essential In Society, It Is Because The Idea Of Society Is The Soul Of Religion.

There Is No Sociology Worthy Of The Name Which Does Not Possess A Historical Character.

A Society Whose Members Are United By The Fact That They Think In The Same Way In Regard To The Sacred World And Its Relations With The Profane World, And By The Fact That They Translate These Common Ideas Into Common Practices, Is What Is Called A Church. In All History, We Do Not Find A Single Religion Without A Church.

Man Is Only A Moral Being Because He Lives In Society, Since Morality Consists In Solidarity With The Group, And Varies According To That Solidarity. Cause All Social Life To Vanish, And Moral Life Would Vanish At The Same Time, Having No Object To Cling To.

At First Sight, One Does Not See What Relations There Can Be Between Religion And Logic.

When Morals Are Sufficient, Law Is Unnecessary; When Morals Are Insufficient, Law Is Unenforceable.

That Men Have An Interest In Knowing The World Which Surrounds Them, And Consequently That Their Reflection Should Have Been Applied To It At An Early Date, Is Something That Everyone Will Readily Admit.

Religious Representations Are Collective Representations Which Express Collective Realities.

Although Our Moral Conscience Is A Part Of Our Consciousness, We Do Not Feel Ourselves On An Equality With It. In This Voice Which Makes Itself Heard Only To Give Us Orders And Establish Prohibitions, We Cannot Recognize Our Own Voices; The Very Tone In Which It Speaks To Us Warns Us That It Expresses Something Within Us That Is Not Of Ourselves.

The Totality Of Beliefs And Sentiments Common To The Average Members Of A Society Forms A Determinate System With A Life Of Its Own. It Can Be Termed The Collective Or Creative Consciousness.

Each Victim Of Suicide Gives His Act A Personal Stamp Which Expresses His Temperament, The Special Conditions In Which He Is Involved, And Which, Consequently, Cannot Be Explained By The Social And General Causes Of The Phenomenon.

When Mores Are Sufficient, Laws Are Unnecessary. When Mores Are Insufficient, Laws Are Unenforceable.

Men Have Been Obliged To Make For Themselves A Notion Of What Religion Is, Long Before The Science Of Religions Started Its Methodical Comparisons.

What History Teaches Us Is That Man Does Not Change Arbitrarily; He Does Not Transform Himself At Will On Hearing The Voices Of Inspired Prophets. The Reason Is That All Change, In Colliding With The Inherited Institutions Of The Past, Is Inevitably Hard And Laborious; Consequently It Only Takes Place In Response To The Demands Of Necessity. For Change To Be Brought About It Is Not Enough That It Should Be Seen As Desirable; It Must Be The Product Of Changes Within The Whole Network Of Diverse Casual Relationships Which Then Determine The Situation Of Man.

Too Cheerful A Morality Is A Loose Morality; It Is Appropriate Only To Decadent Peoples And Is Found Only Among Them.

At This Point, An Urgent Question Arises: [...] Is It Our Duty To Seek To Become A Thorough And Complete Human Being, One Quite Sufficient Unto Himself; Or, On The Contrary, To Be Only A Part Of A Whole, The Organ Of An Organism? Briefly, Is The Division Of Labor, At The Same Time That It Is A Law Of Nature, Also A Moral Rule Of Human Conduct; And, If It Has This Latter Character, Why And In What Degree?

Division Of Labor

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