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Knowledge Is Not A Series Of Self-consistent Theories That Converges Toward An Ideal View; It Is Rather An Ever Increasing Ocean Of Mutually Incompatible (and Perhaps Even Incommensurable) Alternatives, Each Single Theory, Each Fairy Tale, Each Myth That Is Part Of The Collection Forcing The Others Into Greater Articulation And All Of Them Contributing, Via This Process Of Competition, To The Development Of Our Consciousness.

-Paul Feyerabend

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Knowledge Is Not A

Paul Feyerabend

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Knowledge Is Not A Series Of Self-consistent Theories That Converges Toward An Ideal View; It Is Rather An Ever Increasing Ocean Of Mutually Incompatible (and Perhaps Even Incommensurable) Alternatives, Each Single Theory, Each Fairy Tale, Each Myth That Is Part Of The Collection Forcing The Others Into Greater Articulation And All Of Them Contributing, Via This Process Of Competition, To The Development Of Our Consciousness.

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Mathematical Reasoning Is Not Only Exact; It Has Its Own Criteria Of Reality.

Science Is Neither A Single Tradition, Nor The Best Tradition There Is, Except For People Who Have Become Accustomed To Its Presence, Its Benefits And Its Disadvantages. In A Democracy It Should Be Separated From The State Just As Churches Are Now Separated From The State.

Teachers' Using Grades And The Fear Of Failure Mould The Brains Of The Young Until They Have Lost Every Ounce Of Imagination They Might Once Have Possessed.

Confronted With Such A Variety Most Philosophers Try To Establish One Approach To The Exclusion Of All Others. As Far As They Are Concerned There Can Only Be One True Way- And They Want To Find It. Thus Normative Philosophers Argue That Knowledge Is A Result Of The Application Of Certain Rules, They Propose Rules Which In Their Opinion Constitute Knowledge And Reject What Clashes With Them.

The Separation Of State And Church Must Be Complemented By The Separation Of State And Science, That Most Recent, Most Aggressive, And Most Dogmatic Religious Institution.

Unanimity Of Opinion May Be Fitting For A Church, For The Frightened Or Greedy Victims Of Some (ancient, Or Modern) Myth, Or For The Weak And Willing Followers Of Some Tyrant. Variety Of Opinion Is Necessary For Objective Knowledge. And A Method That Encourages Variety Is Also The Only Method That Is Comparable With A Humanitarian Outlook.

Taking Experimental Results And Observations For Granted And Putting The Burden Of Proof On The Theory Means Taking The Observational Ideology For Granted Without Having Ever Examined It.

Burden Of Proof

Rationalism... Is A Secularized Form Of The Belief In The Power Of The Word Of God.

The Separation Of Science And Non-science Is Not Only Artificial But Also Detrimental To The Advancement Of Knowledge. If We Want To Understand Nature, If We Want To Master Our Physical Surroundings, Then We Must Use All Ideas, All Methods, And Not Just A Small Selection Of Them.

When Western Civilization Invaded The Near And Far East And What Is Now Called The Third World It Imposed Its Own Ideas Of A Proper Environment And A Rewarding Life. Doing This, It Disrupted The Delicate Patterns Of Adaptation And Created Problems That Had Not Existed Before.

Today Science Prevails Not Because Of Its Comparative Merits, But Because The Show Has Been Rigged In Its Favour... It Reigns Supreme Because Some Past Successes Have Led To Institutional Measures (education; Role Of Experts; Role Of Power Groups Such As The Ama) That Prevent A Comeback Of The Rivals.

First-world Science Is One Science Among Many; By Claiming To Be More It Ceases To Be An Instrument Of Research And Turns Into A (political) Pressure Group.

Pressure Groups

The Only Principle That Does Not Inhibit Progress Is: Anything Goes.

So Far Unitarian Realism Claiming To Possess Positive Knowledge About Ultimate Reality Has Succeeded Only By Excluding Large Areas Of Phenomena Or By Declaring, Without Proof, That They Could Be Reduced To Basic Theory, Which, In This Connection, Means Elementary Particle Physics.

No Single Theory Ever Agrees With All The Facts In Its Domain

The Church At The Time Was Much More Faithful To Reason Than Galileo Himself, And Also Took Into Consideration The Ethical And Social Consequences Of Galileo's Doctrine. Its Verdict Against Galileo Was Rational And Just.

Early Chinese Thinkers Had Taken Variety At Face Value. They Had Favored Diversification And Collected Anomalies Instead Of Trying To Explain Them Away.

Ultimate Reality, If Such An Entity Can Be Postulated, Is Ineffable.

No Theory Ever Agrees With All The Facts In Its Domain, Yet It Is Not Always The Theory That Is To Blame. Facts Are Constituted By Older Ideologies, And A Clash Between Facts And Theories May Be Proof Of Progress. It Is Also A First Step In Our Attempt To Find The Principles Implicit In Familiar Observational Notions.

Events And Developments, Such As ... The Copernican Revolution, ... Occurred Only Because Some Thinkers Either Decided Not To Be Bound By Certain "obvious" Methodological Rules, Or Because They Unwittingly Broke Them.

Science Is Essentially An Anarchic Enterprise: Theoretical Anarchism Is More Humanitarian And More Likely To Encourage Progress Than Its Law-and-order Alternatives.

Copernicanism And Other Essential Ingredients Of Modern Science Survived Only Because Reason Was Frequently Overruled In Their Past.

Rational Discourse Is Only One Way Of Presenting And Examining An Issue And By No Means The Best. Our New Intellectuals Are Not Aware Of Its Limitations And Of The Nature Of The Things Outside.

Science Is Not Sacrosanct. The Mere Fact That It Exists, Is Admired, Has Results Is Not Sufficient For Making It A Measure Of Excellence. Modern Science Arose From Global Objections Against Earlier Views And Rationalism Itself, The Idea That There Are General Rules And Standards For Conducting Our Affairs, Affairs Of Knowledge Included, Arose From Global Objections To Common Sense.

Knowledge Is Not A Series Of Self-consistent Theories That Converges Toward An Ideal View; It Is Rather An Ever Increasing Ocean Of Mutually Incompatible (and Perhaps Even Incommensurable) Alternatives, Each Single Theory, Each Fairy Tale, Each Myth That Is Part Of The Collection Forcing The Others Into Greater Articulation And All Of Them Contributing, Via This Process Of Competition, To The Development Of Our Consciousness.

Science Is Much Closer To Myth Than A Scientific Philosophy Is Prepared To Admit. It Is One Of The Many Forms Of Thought That Have Been Developed By Man, And Not Necessarily The Best. It Is Conspicuous, Noisy, And Impudent, But It Is Inherently Superior Only For Those Who Have Already Decided In Favour Of A Certain Ideology, Or Who Have Accepted It Without Ever Having Examined Its Advantages And Its Limits.

Without A Constant Misuse Of Language There Cannot Be Any Discovery, Any Progress

Given Any Rule, However "fundamental" Or "necessary" For Science, There Are Always Circumstances When It Is Advisable Not Only To Ignore The Rule, But To Adopt Its Opposite. For Example, There Are Circumstances When It Is Advisable To Introduce, Elaborate And Defend Ad Hoc Hypotheses, Or Hypotheses Which Contradict Well-established And Generally Accepted Experimental Results, Or Hypotheses Whose Content Is Smaller Than The Content Of The Existing And Empirically Adequate Alternative, Or Self-inconsistent Hypotheses, And So On.

The Best Education Consists In Immunizing People Against Systematic Attempts At Education.

It Is Often Assumed That Science Starts From Facts And Eschews Counter-factual Theories. Nothing Could Be Further From The Truth. What Is One Of The Basic Assumptions Of The Scientific World-view? That The Variety Of Events That Surrounds Us Is Held Together By A Deeper Unity.

The Only Absolute Truth Is That There Are No Absolute Truths.

Given Any Rule, However �fundamental� Or �necessary� For Science, There Are Always Circumstances When It Is Advisable Not Only To Ignore The Rule, But To Adopt Its Opposite.

All Religions Are Good 'in Principle' - But Unfortunately This Abstract Good Has Only Rarely Prevented Their Practitioners From Behaving Like Bastards.

Yes, The Academic World Is Screwed Up, And There Is Nothing You Can Do About It. But Don't Worry About That. Just Do What You Want. If You Know What You Want To Do And Advocate For It, No One Will Put Any Energy Into Stopping You.

The World We Inhabit Is Abundant Beyond Our Wildest Imagination. There Are Trees, Dreams, Sunrises; There Are Thunderstorms, Shadows, Rivers; There Are Wars, Flea Bites, Love Affairs; There Are The Lives Of People, Gods, Entire Galaxies. The Simplest Human Action Varies From One Person And Occasion To The Next-how Else Would We Recognize Our Friends Only From Their Gait, Posture, Voice, And Divine Their Changing Moods? Only A Tiny Fraction Of This Abundance Affects Our Minds. This Is A Blessing, Not A Drawback.

Every Profession Has An Ideology And A Drive For Power That Goes Far Beyond Its Achievements And It Is The Task Of Democracy To Keep This Ideology And This Drive Under Control. Science Is Here No Different From Other Institutions.

What Is Surprising Is That Almost All The Trends That Developed Within The Sciences, Aristotelianism And An Extreme Platonism Included, Produced Results, Not Only In Special Domains, But Everywhere; There Exist Highly Theoretical Branches Of Biology And Highly Empirical Parts Of Astrophysics. The World Is A Complex An Many-sided Thing.

Traditions Are Neither Good Nor Bad, They Simply Are... Rationality Is Not An Arbiter Of Traditions, It Is Itself A Tradition Or An Aspect Of A Tradition.

There Is No Coherent Knowledge , I.e. No Uniform Comprehensive Account Of The World And The Events In It. There Is No Comprehensive Truth That Goes Beyond An Enumeration Of Details, But There Are Many Pieces Of Information , Obtained In Different Ways From Different Sources And Collected For The Benefit Of The Curious. The Best Way Of Presenting Such Knowledge Is The List - And The Oldest Scientific Works Were Indeed Lists Of Facts, Parts, Coincidences, Problems In Several Specialized Domains.

Human Paint, Produce Films And Videos; They Dance, Dream And Make Music; They Engage In Political Action, Exchange Goods, Perform Rituals, Build Houses Start Wars, Act In Plays, Try To Please Patrons- And So On... They Contain Patterns, Press The Practitioners To "conform" And In This Way Mold Their Thought, Their Perception, Their Actions, And Their Discriminative Abilities.

Not Only Are Facts And Theories In Constant Disharmony, They Are Never As Neatly Separated As Everyone Makes Them Out To Be.

A Universal Good Should Reflect The Reality Of The Individual Benefits That Are Collected Under Its Name, Not The Other Way Around.

If The World Is An Aggregate Of Relatively Independent Regions, Then Any Assumption Of Universal Laws Is False And A Demand For Universal Norms Tyrannical: Only Brute Force (or Seductive Deception) Can Then Bend The Different Moralities So That They Fit The Prescriptions Of A Single Ethical System. And Indeed, The Idea Of Universal Laws Of Nature And Society Arose In Connection With A Life-and-death Battle: The Battle That Gave Zeus The Power Over The Titans And All Other Gods And Thus Turned His Laws Into The Laws Of The Universe.

Language Became A Colorless And As Indistinct As The Business Suit Which Is Now Worm By Everyone, By The Scholar, By The Businessman, By The Professional Killer. Being Accustomed To A Dry And Dreary Norm And Sees In It An Obvious Sign Of Arrogance And Aggression; Viewing Authority With Almost Religious Awe He Gets Into A Frenzy When He Sees Someone Pluck The Beard Of His Favorite Prophet.

There Is Not A Single Rule, However Plausible, And However Firmly Grounded In Epistemology, That Is Not Violated At Some Time Or Other. It Becomes Evident That Such Violations Are Not Accidental Events, They Are Not Results Of Insufficient Knowledge Or Of Inattention Which Might Have Been Avoided. On The Contrary, We See That They Are Necessary For Progress.

I Do Not See Why I Should Be Polite To Tyrants, Who Slobber Of Humanitarianism And Think Only Of Their Own Petty Interests.

The Validity Of Usefulness, Adequacy Of Popular Standards Can Be Tested Only By Research That Violates Them.

Science Is An Essentially Anarchic Enterprise.

Those Who Violate The Rules Of A Language Do Not Enter New Territory; They Leave The Domain Of Meaningful Discourse. Even Facts In These Circumstances Dissolve, Because They Are Shaped By The Language And Subjected To Its Limitations.

A Scientist, An Artist, A Citizen Is Not Like A Child Who Needs Papa Methodology And Mama Rationality To Give Him Security And Direction, He Can Take Care Of Himself, For He Is The Inventor Not Only Of Laws, Theories, Pictures, Plays, Forms Of Music, Ways Of Dealing With His Fellow Man, Institutions, But Also Entire World View, He Is The Inventor Of Entire Forms Of Like.

The Idea Of A Method That Contains Firm, Unchanging, And Absolutely Binding Principles For Conducting The Business Of Science Meets Considerable Difficulty When Confronted With The Results Of Historical Research. We Find, Then, That There Is Not A Single Rule, However Plausible, And However Firmly Grounded In Epistemology, That Is Not Violated At Some Time Or Another.

All Religion May Be Centered Around A Generally Good Idea, However, This Has Not Stopped Its Adherents From Acting Like Bastards.

The Material Which A Scientist Actually Has At His Disposal, His Laws, His Experimental Results, His Mathematical Techniques, His Epistemological Prejudices, His Attitude Towards The Absurd Consequences Of The Theories Which He Accepts, Is Indeterminate In Many Ways, Ambiguous, And Never Fully Separated From The Historical Background . This Material Is Always Contaminated By Principles Which He Does Not Know And Which, If Known, Would Be Extremely Hard To Test.

Facts Are Constituted By Older Ideologies, And A Clash Between Facts And Theories May Be Proof Of Progress.

Experience Arises Together With Theoretical Assumptions Not Before Them, And An Experience Without Theory Is Just As Incomprehensible As Is (allegedly) A Theory Without Experience.

I Had Studied Dadaism After The Second World War. What Attracted Me To This Movement Was The Style Its Inventors Used When Not Engaged In Dadaistic Activities. It Was Clear, Luminous, Simple Without Being Banal, Precise Without Being Narrow; It Was A Style Adapted To The Expression Of Thought As Well As Of Emotion. I Connected This Style With The Dadaistic Exercises Themselves

The Attitude Of The Church Was Not As Dogmatic As Is Often Assumed. Interpretations Of Bible Passages Had Been Revised In The Light Of Scientific Research Before. Everyone Regarded The Earth As Spherical And As Freely Floating In Space Though The Bible Tells A Different Story.

Humane Science Must Be Adapted To The Requirements Of A Balanced And Rewarding Life.

Science Is Only ‘one’ Of The Many Instruments People Invented To Cope With Their Surroundings. It Is Not The Only One, It Is Not Infallible And It Has Become Too Powerful, Too Pushy And Too Dangerous To Be Left On Its Own.

One Knows Quite Well That Harmony Can Be A Harmony Of Appearances.

Results From A Given Approach Are "facts" As Long As The Approach Fits The Group Or The Tradition That Is Being Addressed.

A Free Society Is A Society In Which All Traditions Have Equal Rights And Equal Access To The Centers Of Power. A Tradition Receives These Rights Not Because The Importance The Cash Value, As It Were) It Has For Outsiders But Because It Gives Meaning To The Lives Of Those Who Participate In It.

There Is No "scientific Worldview" Just As There Is No Uniform Enterprise "science" - Except In The Minds Of Metaphysicians, School Masters, And Scientists Blinded By The Achievements Of Their Own Particular Niche... There Is No Objective Principle That Could Direct Us Away From The Supermarket "religion" Or The Supermarket "art" Toward The More Modern, And Much More Expensive Supermarket "science." Besides, The Search For Such Guidance Would Be In Conflict With The Idea Of Individual Responsibility Which Allegedly Is An Important Ingredient Of A "rational" Or Scientific Age.

One Might Get The Impression That I Recommend A New Methodology Which Replaces Induction By Counterinduction And Uses A Multiplicity Of Theories, Metaphysical Views, Fairy Tales, Instead Of The Customary Pair Theory/observation. This Impression Would Certainly Be Mistaken. My Intention Is Not To Replace One Set Of General Rules By Another Such Set: My Intention Is Rather To Convince The Reader That All Methodologies, Even The Most Obvious Ones, Have Their Limits.

In A War A Totalitarian State Has A Free Hand.

Arguments Hardly Affect The Faithful- Their Beliefs Have An Entirely Different Foundation.

It Is Clear, Then, That The Idea Of A Fixed Method, Or Of A Fixed Theory Of Rationality, Rests On Too Naive A View Of Man And His Social Surroundings. To Those Who Look At The Rich Material Provided By History, And Who Are Not Intent On Impoverishing It In Order To Please Their Lower Instincts, Their Craving For Intellectual Security In The Form Of Clarity, Precision, "objectivity," "truth," It Will Become Clear That There Is Only One Principle That Can Be Defended Under All Circumstances And In All Stages Of Human Development. It Is The Principle: Anything Goes.

My Intention Is Not To Replace One Set Of General Rules By Another Such Set: My Intention Is, Rather, To Convince The Reader That All Methodologies, Even The Most Obvious Ones, Have Their Limits.

The Sciences Of Today Are Business Enterprises Run On Business Principles. Research In Large Institutes Is Not Guided By Truth And Reason But By The Most Rewarding Fashion, And The Great Minds Of Today Increasingly Turn To Where The Money Is - Which Means Military Matters.

An Anarchist Is Like An Undercover Agent Who Plays The Game Of Reason In Order To Undercut The Authority Of Reason (truth, Honesty, Justice And So On).

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